Poverty and the Right to Development: An International Human Rights Approach

Transcripción

1 Poverty and the Right to Development: An International Human Rights Approach José A. Guevara In their capacity as legal entities, states continue to be the principal actors in the international community. In contrast to international organizations, individuals, and other nongovernmental actors, 1 nation-states have the capacity to create international law and to oblige everyone under their jurisdiction 2 to comply with it through means established by International Law. They also have responsibilities on an international level. Nevertheless, since the mid-twentieth century, international organizations and to a more limited extent individuals also have a certain legal standing in international law. The former have the capacity to enter into international contracts and demand their fulfillment as a government would, but as of yet they themselves cannot be held accountable for their international obligations. Individuals also have a certain legal standing in international law insofar as, first, they hold certain rights and have access to mechanisms through which they can Director General Adjunto de Derechos Humanos y Democracia de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores de México. Las observaciones y opiniones que se hacen en este trabajo se hacen exclusivamente a título individual y no representan las de la Cancillería. 1 Entre otros, los movimientos de liberación nacional y las organizaciones no-gubernamentales, las empresas transnacionales. 2 Las formas en las que las personas sometidas a su autoridad pueden ser obligadas a respetar y hacer respetar el derecho internacional pueden ser diversas, como por ejemplo, por medio del derecho penal, del administrativo y constitucional, entre otras. SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 1

2 oblige governments to respect their human rights and, 3 second, they are accountable for serious crimes committed against the international community. 4 It is important to keep in mind that governments may subject themselves to international obligations through international law, international treaties, international customary law, or general principles of law recognized by civilized nations. 5 As a result, a national government s observance of international law is entirely voluntary, whether through its unequivocal consent to follow a treaty (signature, ratification, or accession) or through consistent behavior (repeated practice inveretata consuetudo) 6 that demonstrates that the foundation for its conduct is a legal obligation (opinio juris). 7 Is there such a thing as a right to development? As of today, there exists no international treaty obliging developed countries to assist developing countries through economic assistance. Nor is there a specific framework within which the governments of developed countries that contribute to development elsewhere, be it through financing or aid, can claim that assistance or cooperation fulfills an obligation of international law. 8 3 La comunidad internacional ha desarrollado un número importante de mecanismos, de diversa naturaleza para supervisar el cumplimiento de las obligaciones de los Estados en materia de derechos humanos, y algunos de ellos cuentan con capacidad para que las personas puedan presentar comunicaciones o quejas individuales. 4 Existen varios tipos de tribunales penales creados o en los que participa la comunidad internacional, como los Tribunales para la Antigua Yugoslavia y Rwanda, la Corte Penal Internacional, y otros de naturaleza mixta como el de Sierra Leona. 5 Véase artículo 38 del Estatuto de la Corte Internacional de Justicia. 6 También actos únicos pueden generar costumbre. 7 El artículo 38 del Estatuto de la Corte Internacional de Justicia señala que la costumbre es una "[...] prueba de una práctica generalmente aceptada como derecho[...]". 8 Por ejemplo, véase patrón de votos de la Declaración del Derecho al Desarrollo y confróntese con los nombres de los países que cuentan con el más alto índice de recursos para la cooperación o asistencia al desarrollo. A/RES/41/128 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 2

3 All that exists in the sphere of international law is a set of norms, or what we know as soft laws, that establish a conceptual framework for the political promises of governments concerning cooperation, aid, or financing for development. The idea of a right to development (hereinafter RD ) as a human right (not merely as economic or social development) 9 and its legal manifestation emerged for the first time in the context of the Organization of African Unity (hereinafter OAU ) in 1981, 10 with the approval of the African Charter on Human and People s Rights. The charter recognizes the RD as a human right intrinsically bound to the fulfillment of other human rights that are interdependent and indivisible: economic, social, cultural, civil, and political. 11 In addition, the African Charter, in contrast to regional and universal human rights instruments, acknowledges through its very definition of the RD the existence of human rights for not only individuals but also collective entities. 12 The precedent set by the Organization of African Unity was followed by the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) in its 1986 Declaration on the Right to Development (hereinafter DRD ), 13 which also recognizes it as a collective and individual human right. In other words, the RD is understood as a right belonging to every individual and everyone by virtue of which every human person and all people are entitled to participate in, contribute to, 9 Sobre esta materia existe una Declaración sobre el Progreso y el Desarrollo en lo Social, adoptada por resolución 2542 (XXIV) del 11 de diciembre de 1969 (en adelante la "Declaración sobre el Progreso y el Desarrollo en lo Social"). 10 Aprobada por la OUA en Kenya, Nairobi. 11 E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/16, del 1º de junio de 2004, párr El artículo 22 señala: "1. Todos los pueblos tendrán derecho a su desarrollo económico, social y cultural, con la debida consideración a su identidad y disfrutando por igual de la herencia común de la humanidad. 2. Los Estados tendrán el deber, individual y colectivamente, de garantizar el ejercicio de derecho al desarrollo". 13 Adoptada por resolución 41/128 de la Asamblea General de la ONU, por 146 votos a favor, 8 abstenciones (Suecia, Dinamarca, Islandia, la República Federal de Alemania, Finlandia, Israel, Japón y Reino Unido) y un voto en contra (Estados Unidos de América). SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 3

4 and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized. 14 The establishment of the RD seeks to protect and guarantee human rights civil, political, economic, social, and cultural as well as the right to peace and liberty; 15 in other words, it encompasses all other rights and liberties recognized internationally. 16 In the minds of some, recognizing the RD sought, among other things, to do away with the artificial differentiation of human rights established in the principal international human rights instruments: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESC), both from Nevertheless, this effort to combine the rights set out in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR), which were distinguished by the above-mentioned agreements, 18 is complemented in part by the declarations that emerged from the international conferences on human rights that took place in Tehran in and in Vienna in According to the independent expert on the RD, Arjun Segupta, the interconnectedness of these rights entails that whenever one is transgressed so, too, is the right to development in all its facets Véase el artículo 1.1 de la DDD. 15 También Véase E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/16 16 Véanse párrafos preambulares 3, 4 y 5 de la DDD 17 E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/18, párr La Asamblea General desde que decidió que se elaboraran dos Pactos en lugar de uno, se refirió a que los mismos serían "interdependientes". Véanse resoluciones de la Asamblea General 421 (V), 543 (VI) y el tercer párrafo preambular de ambos Pactos. 19 Conferencia de Teherán que se reunió del 22 de abril al 13 de mayo de 1968 para conmemorar los veinte años de la DUDH. Véanse proclamas 5 y 13 de la Proclamación de Teherán. 20 Celebrada entre el 14 y el 25 de junio de 1993 se aprobó, por la Segunda Conferencia Mundial de Derechos Humanos, la Declaración y Programa de Acción de Viena. En dicha Declaración, nuevamente, nos encontramos con la indivisibilidad e interdependencia de los Derechos Humanos, en el punto 5 de la misma. Asimismo, Véase E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/17, párrs E/CN.4/2002/WG.18/6, párr. 6 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 4

5 In addition, the DRD clearly establishes that the RD implies peoples right to selfdetermination, as it is recognized in Article 1 of both the ICCPR and ICESC, 22 which means that nations, among other entities, have the inalienable right to full sovereignty over their natural wealth and resources. 23 To situate the stated article in its proper context, it is important to remember that in 1966, when the Covenants were adopted, the process of de-colonization was well under way and the emergence of several new nations made it necessary to reaffirm the equality of all nations, regardless of their date of founding. It is for this reason that the first article of both Covenants is interpreted in accordance with the relevant aspects of the UN Charter, in particular those that related to state sovereignty, the equality of nations, and the right to be free from intervention in internal affairs. Along those lines, the section on self-determination refers to a people s right to freely elect its government and choose its manner of pursuing economic, social, and cultural development. The importance given to the recognition of sovereignty in the Covenants stems from the idea that a nation s independence is considered a necessary condition for human rights to be respected and guaranteed El artículo 1 común a dichos tratados señala "1. Todos los pueblos tienen el derecho de libre determinación. En virtud de este derecho establecen libremente su condición política y proveen asimismo a su desarrollo económico, social y cultural. 2. Para el logro de sus fines, todos los pueblos pueden disponer libremente de sus riquezas y recursos naturales, sin perjuicio de las obligaciones que derivan de la cooperación económica internacional basada en el principio de beneficio recíproco, así como del derecho internacional. En ningún caso podrá privarse a un pueblo de sus propios medios de subsistencia. 3. Los Estados Partes en el presente Pacto, incluso los que tienen la responsabilidad de administrar territorios no autónomos y territorios en fideicomiso, promoverán el ejercicio del derecho de libre determinación, y respetarán este derecho de conformidad con las disposiciones de la Carta de las Naciones Unidas. 23 El artículo 1.2. de la DDD señala que "El derecho humano al desarrollo implica también la plena realización del derecho a de los pueblos a la libre determinación, que incluye, con sujeción a las disposiciones pertinentes de ambos Pactos internacionales de derechos humanos, el ejercicio de su derecho inalienable a la plena soberanía sobre todas sus riquezas y recursos naturales". 24 Véase artículo 3 de la Declaración sobre el Progreso y el Desarrollo en lo Social, adoptada por resolución 2542 (XXIV) del 11 de diciembre de Asimismo, Véase fracción 2 del artículo 1 de la DDD. En este sentido, en la Conferencia de Viena de 1993: Habida cuenta de la situación particular de los pueblos sometidos a dominación colonial o a otras formas de dominación u ocupación extranjeras, la Conferencia Mundial de Derechos Humanos reconoce el derecho de los pueblos a adoptar cualquier medida legítima, de SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 5

6 On the other hand, the DRD also indicates that all nations have duty to take steps, individually and collectively, to formulate international development policies with a view to facilitating the full realization of the right to development, 25 which does not necessarily mean that certain nations are obliged to assist others in guaranteeing the RD, as I will explain below. Nevertheless, I believe that the DRD clearly refers to the responsibilities of nations ad intra, meaning that nations have the obligation to guarantee people under their jurisdiction the fulfillment of their RD or, more accurately, the rights which constitute their RD. It should also be noted that developed nations obligation to assist developing nations can be justified on the historical relationship between them, especially after de-colonization. 26 Underlying this claim is the realization that the economic development of some countries was achieved through the exploitation of others, and establishing the RD would constitute a form of reparation for this damage. For developing countries, this shared history of exploitation forms the basis for today s unjust economic relationships, which ought be corrected by ensuring equitable economic development throughout the world. 27 It is nevertheless important to keep sight of the fact that many of the obstacles to development in developing countries are not conformidad con la Carta de las Naciones Unidas, encaminada a realizar su derecho inalienable a la libre determinación. La Conferencia considera que la denegación del derecho a la libre determinación constituye una violación de los derechos humanos y subraya la importancia de la realización efectiva de este derecho. Declaración y Programa de Acción de Viena, apartado 2, párrafo II. 25 E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/16, párr La asistencia oficial al desarrollo de los Estados occidentales que se dirige a los menos desarrollados "[...] se ha basado siempre en una serie de motivaciones, como el sentimiento de culpa tras la etapa colonia o diversas razones estratégicas y consideraciones humanitarias". E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/18, párr Para un experto de Naciones Unidas "El objetivo del derecho al desarrollo se inscribe en un contexto mundial que no es especialmente propicio para los derechos humanos. Predomina un clima de hegemonía del paradigma económico del capitalismo neoliberal que agudiza la marginación de los países del tercer mundo, entre otras cosas, por medio de la carga de la deuda y unas relaciones economistas que han trabajado para instituciones financieras internacionales, que son responsables y supervisoras de modelos y recetas económicas no adecuadas". E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/16, párr. 34 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 6

7 exogenous, but stem from internal factors such as corruption, inefficient administration, and bad governance. 28 The DRD asserts that all peoples have the right to participate in global economic development, which in general terms means that developed countries must refrain from influencing or intervening in matters that fall solely within the jurisdiction of less-developed countries (as noted above) and must allow less-developed countries equal access to international markets. 29 Though analyzing the inequities of international commerce is beyond the scope of this paper, it should be noted that access to international markets is not equal for all nations, a condition that causes economic problems for countries that, for example, produce agricultural exports and lack access to technology that would allow them to compete on an equal playing field; these economic problems are in turn aggravated by the process of globalization. It is also important to emphasize, however, that so-called globalization is not necessarily what prevents development. In fact, some contend that globalization has positive aspects; for example, insofar as globalization stimulates local and global economies it also guarantees the RD 30 and its attendant human, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, since fulfillment of these relies to some extent on economic resources. 31 As the DRD itself indicates, guaranteeing these rights necessitates, among other things, providing greater assistance to developing countries and facilitating credit conditions. 32 But as experts in the field agree, the current level of development assistance officially set aside by contributing countries is woefully 28 Como señala el Profesor José Bengoa "Quizá la evaluación más importante de una década de 'globalización salvaje', como la que se ha vivido después de finalizado el período de la guerra fria, es la existencia de una relación íntima entre los factores externos ('globalización') y los factores internos ('gobernabilidad'). Culpar o responsabilizar solamente a una parte de los males que azotan a nuestros países es parcial y equivocado". E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/44, párr Artículo 7 de la DDD. 30 E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/18, párr Véase E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/18 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 7

8 inadequate. It is important to note that many countries have promised to earmark 0.7% of their GDP for assistance and only a handful have actually done so. 33 This commitment, which developed countries first agreed to in the 1970s, was reaffirmed some years ago, and greater efforts are now being made to meet the goal of providing 0.7% of GDP in official assistance for development. 34 As mentioned above, the RD is an issue that affects the entire international community. It requires a sufficient amount of international cooperation, and constructive global partnerships. 35 In the opinion of Professor Robert Howse, the international community referred to by the DRD should be understood as including not only states but also international organizations. The logic behind this assertion is that if nations have the responsibility to promote and protect human rights and are therefore required to design policy with respect for these rights, international organizations which are run by nations must also determine policy in ways that respect and promote human rights. 36 In summary, the RD is a form of recovery for less-developed countries from developed countries, 37 in spite of the fact that developed countries do not provide development assistance 32 Véase párr. 23, b) del Declaración sobre el Progreso y el Desarrollo en lo Social. 33 E/CN.4/2003/WG.18/2, párr Jeffrey D. Sachs, "The Development Challenge", en Foreign Affairs, Volume 84, Number 2, March-April 2005, p Véase E/CN.4/2005/25, párr. 16. Una alianza, la define un experto de Naciones Unidas, como una relación de colaboración (o cooperación) "[...] dirigida a objetivos comunes acordados mutuamente, en la que se involucran responsabilidades compartidas sobre los resultados, distintas rendiciones de cuentas y obligaciones recíprocas". E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/17, párr Véanse intervenciones de países en la 61º periodo de sesiones de la CDH (14 de marzo al 22 de abril de 2005), en particular al tratarse el Tema 7 de la Agenda. SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 8

9 based on a legal obligation, 38 as is clearly evidenced by the absence of a legal obligation for the RD and the manner in which contributing countries earmark resources. 39 As a result, although it is customary to talk about the RD, in my opinion no such right really exists as long as the terms delineating obligations, recipients, beneficiaries, and means of claiming redress are not established. In addition, anything that is not framed as an enforceable right can be constrained by the terminology donor and recipient countries use, as in the case of a development partnership, for example. 40 This type of language which permeates the discourse allows the debate on the RD, such as that in the UN, to remain highly polarized. 41 Along these lines, a UN expert has indicated that at the center of the DRD and the debates leading up to it is the realization that securing these rights will require international cooperation. For this expert, the question is how to develop the best formula that will allow countries to work cooperatively towards making the RD a reality. The first step must necessarily be to recognize the asymmetrical relationship between donor countries which are also host to the international 38 Por ejemplo Suecia que es un país que cumple con los compromisos internacionales de cooperar al desarrollo, no lo considera un derecho entre estados. Ello ha sido expuesto por el propio Experto Independiente en el Derecho al Desarrollo de la siguiente manera, después de una visita a dicho país. E/CN.4/2002/WG.18/6/Add.1, párr Por ejemplo, los Estados Unidos de América que es el país que más recursos ofrece a la asistencia oficial al desarrollo enfoca el destino de dichos recursos a países geopolíticamente estratégicos que, como dice Jeffrey Sachs, le pueden ayudar en la lucha contra el terrorismo o el narcotráfico, como por ejemplo Colombia, Egipto, Irak y Afganistán. Jeffrey D. Sachs, "The Development Challenge", en Foreign Affairs, Volume 84, Number 2, March-April 2005, p Por ejemplo, "El informe de 1996 Moldeando el Siglo XXI de la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico ofrece uno de las expresión más explícitas de esta nueva visión para lograr 'un empaque fuerte para la alianza efectiva' [La nota al pie de página fue suprimida en parte] ['La Agencia Sueca para el Desarrollo Internacional (ASDI) fue una de las primeras agencias bilaterales que tomó con seriedad el concepto de pacto basado en la apropiación socio-país']". E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág Los expertos de Naciones Unidas también han reconocido que "[...] over the last 10 years or so there has been a recognition that current approaches to development assistance are not satisfactory and that a change is required with a move towards 'partnership-based approaches', based on a shared commitment to poverty reduction and 'national ownership' of development processes". E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 9

10 organizations that offer credit, financing, and technical support and less-developed countries and recipients. 42 Once this asymmetry is recognized, mutual commitments or partnerships will doubtlessly lead to the gradual realization of the RD, assuming that both sides participate as equals, through genuine negotiations, and that developing countries are allowed to take charge of their development process. 43 All too commonly donor countries and institutions impose conditions on the recipient countries in commitments or partnerships that involve the granting of resources. Are the conditions imposed on financing for development legitimate? The UN reminds us of how the principal multilateral donor of the 1970s, the International Monetary Fund, provided loans to developing countries while requiring that they meet an increasing number of macroeconomic policy conditions: free trade policies, the adoption of certain deficit measures, and other budget measures. 44 These structural conditions were also imposed by other bilateral donors and the World Bank. 45 I think I m on firm ground if I assert that these structural conditions have not proved adequate, and that as a result international actors have decided to alter them. 46 As I anticipated, the criticisms and failures spawned by many of these structural guarantees led donors and recipients to design new conditions and formulas that are now included in development 42 Véase E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág E/CN.4/2005/25, párr E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág Por ejemplo, nos recuerda un experto de Naciones Unidas que actualmente, y después de 4 años de la adopción de las Metas del Milenio para el Desarrollo "[...] asistimos a una formulación de los objetivos del Banco Mundial más adecuada y más vinculada a la lucha contra la pobreza. En 2000 empezó a hablarse, aún de modo impreciso, de estrategias de lucha contra la pobreza en vez de programas de ajuste estructural; cuatro años después, esta expresión ha resultado ser mucho más que un mero cambio de nombre". E/CN.4/2004/43, párr. 13 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 10

11 agreements and partnerships, 47 as well as a consensual framework that revolves around the financing for development. As the Millennium Development Goals 48 and the Monterrey Consensus 49 show, the financing for development has recently focused on reaching eight goals by 2015: (1) The eradication of poverty and hunger, (2) Universal primary education, (3) The promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women, (4) The reduction of infant mortality, (5) The improvement of maternal health, (6) Fighting HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, (7) Guaranteeing environmental sustainability, and (8) The development of a global development partnership. The starting points for reaching these goals are certain bases and compromises that will need to be addressed via strategic, local, regional and international partnerships that will be comprised of donors, recipients, international organizations, international financial institutions, and private initiatives. The Monterrey Consensus undoubtedly represents a set of good principles for financing development that, as Jeffrey D. Sachs says, established a multifaceted strategy through which private initiative will be promoted in developing countries, commerce will be opened with them, and official development assistance will be increased. The important thing is that these principles will not only be applied to donor governments but also to international financial institutions. 50 It is important to emphasize that donors, in accordance with the Monterrey Consensus, have a right to demand guarantees and conditions from recipients that, in my opinion, are 47 E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág A/RES/55/2 49 Jeffrey D. Sachs, "The Development Challenge", en Foreign Affairs, Volume 84, Number 2, March-April 2005, p E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág. 33 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 11

12 necessary to ensure both that the agreement s objective is met and that the assistance supplied reaches its destination; they also help clarify responsibilities when matters go awry. Through the consensus, recipients have promised to reduce poverty by designing national plans 51 and to respect human rights, the Rule of Law, and principles of good governance. 52 Whereas before the determining factor was macroeconomic policy, now it is good governance and the fight against poverty. 53 Recognizing the individual as the central axis of the right to development 54 facilitates the incorporation of human rights law 55 into the discussion about making this right effective, a task that includes not only allowing people to participate in its design, but also in the execution and evaluation 56 of development policy. 57 For some, respecting human rights in the financing for development has been fruitful. For example, the Independent Expert of the Right to Development has noted that: "The New Partnership for Africa s Development (NEPAD), established in July 2001 at the Organization of African Unity (now the African Union) summit, 51 Un experto de la ONU nos recuerda que "More recently, the 2002 Monterrey Consensus set out this new compact, linking sovereign responsibility in developing countries for good governance and for the development of national priorities (underpinning the national ownership of development processes) with commitments on aid volumes and aid quality on the part of donors in support of these national choices". E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/15, pág Quiero también enfatizar que, si bien no existe una definición sobre buen gobierno (governance) en el derecho internacional, a partir de la DDD se ha tratado de dotar de contenido a dicho concepto señalar que para la implementación del DD se requiere crecimiento económico con equidad, así como también que las políticas de crecimiento incorporen los derechos humanos, así como los principios de transparencia, igualdad, participación, rendición de cuentas y no discriminación en la políticas públicas. E/CN.4/2005/25, párrs El Experto Independiente en el Derecho al Desarrollo así lo señaló: "Todo [...] enfoque del desarrollo y cualesquiera normas de elaboración de políticas basada en los derechos humanos entrañan un proceso equitativo, no discriminatorio, participativo, responsable y transparente". E/CN.4/2002/WG.18/6, párr. 14.a) 54 La Comisión de Derechos Humanos ha reconocido que en la DDD "[...] se confirma el derecho al desarrollo como derecho humano inalienable y que la igualdad de oportunidades para el desarrollo es una prerrogativa tanto de las naciones como de los individuos que las componen, y que la persona humana es el sujeto central y el beneficiario del desarrollo". E/CN.4/RES/2003/83 55 E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/17, párr E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/18, párr Véanse E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/16, párr. 23 y E/CN.4/Sub/.2/2004/18, párr. 32 SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 12

13 has been described by its founders as a vision and a program of action to reactivate the development of the African continent as well as an integrated and detailed development plan that deals with fundamental social, economic, and political priorities in a coherent and balanced manner [note omitted]. This social development initiative expressly includes economic growth (7% annual); the promotion of democracy, human rights, and the eradication of poverty; and reaching international development objectives by According to another expert, the Millennium Development Goals are now considered a benchmark by international financial and commercial institutions, a victory for coherence that she claims allows for optimism about the clarity that the international community is capable of. 59 Does the Right to Development have a Future? Even if the international community has a framework that allows it to make the RD effective, that is based on the Declaration of the Right to Development, that passes through the Millennium Declaration and the Monterrey Consensus, and that reflects a significant number of U.N. studies and resolutions, it would still lack the international legal principles that govern this right. The lack of these principles and of enforcement mechanisms against non-compliant states or against individuals within a state s jurisdiction 60 is precisely why U.N. bodies find themselves working along different paths E/CN.4/2002/WG.18/6, párr E/CN.4/2004/43, párr Salvo por el Sistema Africano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos en el que se pueden denunciar violaciones a la Carta Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos en la que se encuentra el derecho al desarrollo en su artículo 22, no encuentro otro precedente al respecto. 61 La Comisión de Derechos Humanos de la ONU ha creado un grupo de trabajo de composición abierta sobre el derecho al desarrollo (en adelante el "GTDD"), con un mandato para monitorear y revisar los progresos alcanzados en la promoción e implementación del DD a los niveles nacional e internacional, y hacer recomendaciones que servirán para eludir los obstáculos que impiden la realización del DD. Véase E/CN.4/2005/25, párr. 1 Este GTDD, a su vez, ha creado una fuerza de tareas sobre el derecho al desarrollo con el mandato para analizar y recomendar al GTDD, tomando en consideración las perspectivas nacionales e internacionales, sobre los (i) obstáculos y retos para la implementación de las Metas del Milenio sobre Desarrollo, con relación al DD, y (ii) las buenas prácticas en la implementación del DD. SELA 2005 Panel 5: Poverty and the International Order 13