Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in content-based teaching A training kit

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1 ConBaT+ E 11_print.qxd:Cover_V :00 Uhr Seite 1 Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in content-based teaching A training kit Mercè Bernaus, Áine Furlong, Sofie Jonckheere and Martine Kervran Primary and secondary school teachers working with learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds Teacher trainers looking for a training kit with very practical resources Educational inspectors and decision-makers faced with accommodating diversity in the school curriculum Educational institutions increasingly face the challenge of accommodating learners from a wide range of linguistic and cultural backgrounds in their classrooms. The training kit presents an innovative way of managing diversity in the classroom by combining plurilingual and pluricultural approaches with content-based instruction. The reader will discover how content-based and plurilingual activities can be linked to several subjects of the curriculum. The accompanying website presents sample activities which illustrate the approach outlined in the rationale. A primary school teacher will, for example, find an activity suitable for mathematics, sports and/or music and a secondary school teacher of civic, social and political education may be interested in testing out plurilingual comparative text work on the theme of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. For further information and materials relating to this publication, visit the website: The Council of Europe has 47 member states, covering virtually the entire continent of Europe. It seeks to develop common democratic and legal principles based on the European Convention on Human Rights and other reference texts on the protection of individuals. Ever since it was founded in 1949, in the aftermath of the second world war, the Council of Europe has symbolised reconciliation. Council of Europe Publishing / 2 4 US$ Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in content-based teaching A training kit This publication is targeted at: Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in content-based teaching A training kit Mercè Bernaus, Áine Furlong, Sofie Jonckheere and Martine Kervran ISBN COUNCIL OF EUROPE CONSEIL DE L'EUROPE

2 PROMOTING EXCELLENCE IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) is an Enlarged Partial Agreement of the Council of Europe to which thirty-four countries subscribe 1. The institution focuses on bridging the gap between language policy theory and classroom learning practice. In a period of unparalleled change and mobility, the Centre offers concrete approaches to issues and challenges facing Europe s culturally diverse societies. The Centre seeks to make a positive difference to the language education profession by: promoting innovative approaches; advancing the quality of teaching and learning languages; supporting the implementation of language education policies; fostering dialogue between language education practitioners and decision makers. ECML activities are complementary to those of the Council of Europe s Language Policy Division, responsible for the development of policies and planning tools in the field of language education and the Secretariat of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. *** The present series of publications results from the ECML programme, entitled Empowering language professionals: Competences Networks Impact Quality. The programme has taken place against a backdrop of major international political developments in the sphere of education, where increasing demands are placed on the professional skills of teachers. The profession is expected to contribute to national education reform processes and face a wide range of challenges relating, among others, to standard-linked tuition, result-oriented assessment, greater autonomy of educational institutions and increasing ethnic and cultural heterogeneity among students. The publications illustrate the dedication and active involvement of all those who participated in a series of 24 international projects, particularly the teams who coordinated the projects. All ECML publications and accompanying materials are available for download: 1 The 34 member states of the Enlarged Partial Agreement of the ECML are: Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, United Kingdom (status 30 June 2011).

3 Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in content-based teaching: A training kit Mercè Bernaus, Áine Furlong, Sofie Jonckheere and Martine Kervran European Centre for Modern Languages Council of Europe Publishing

4 French edition: Plurilinguisme et pluriculturalisme dans l enseignement d une matière: kit de formation ISBN: The opinions expressed in this work are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated, reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic (CD-Rom, Internet, etc.) or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the Public Information Division, Directorate of Communication (F Strasbourg Cedex or publishing@coe.int). Cover: Georg Gross Layout: Stenner Medienproduktion Copy-editing: Robert Blackwell Council of Europe Publishing F Strasbourg Cedex European Centre for Modern Languages / Council of Europe Nikolaiplatz 4 A-8020 Graz ISBN: Council of Europe, 2011 Printed in Austria

5 Table of contents 1. Welcome 7 2. Development of the project 9 3. Rationale Beliefs and attitudes towards content-based teaching and plurilingualism/culturalism Sample activities for the classroom Contar hasta diez Motion in the ocean Les droits de l homme Identidades, familia, muros y lenguas The website List of participants and activities 111 Appendix 1. Survey results on attitudes toward content-based learning and plurilingualism 115 Further materials, including 26 classroom activities on plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in content-based teaching are available from the website 3

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7 Acknowledgements The project team would like to thank Dr Fernando Trujillo Saez and Dr Peter MacIntyre for their valuable contributions to the project. The team would also like to express their gratitude to the participants for their enormous contribution to this project. This was reflected by their hard work, their creativity and their open minds. Special thanks also to the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) and its staff for their smiles and continuous support. 5

8 This publication is the result of a project of the European Centre for Modern Languages entitled "Content based teaching and plurilingual/cultural awareness" (ConBat+). Frequent reference is made in the text to the project/publication through its acronym ConBaT+. For further information and materials relating to this publication, visit the website

9 1. Welcome This project responds to ECML s third medium-term programme ( ) entitled Empowering Language Professionals: Competences Networks Impact Quality. The acronym ConBaT+ stands for Content-Based Teaching + plurilingual and pluricultural awareness. We use bridges as a metaphor for the project. Why bridges? We need bridges to introduce and disseminate content-based and plurilingual activities that can be linked to several subjects of the curriculum. This new approach needs the collaboration of the professionals of languages and the professionals of other non-linguistic subjects who will be empowered to manage ethnic and cultural heterogeneity as well as overcrowded curricula. What kind of bridges do we need? We need wide bridges to allow many vehicles (methodologies, didactics, research, etc.) and many people (students, teachers, educational bodies, etc.) from all over the world to cross over. We need long bridges to reach out to all kinds of languages, cultures and knowledge. We need open bridges to facilitate and support free and unrestricted communication and exchanges and strong bridges that can withstand possible adverse wind. Where should ConBaT+ bridges lead? They should lead towards: plurilingual, pluricultural and intercultural competence among primary and secondary school teachers and their pupils; empowering teachers to create quality cross-curricular materials in English, French and Spanish, as a second language (L2), for primary and secondary school learners; the introduction of the languages and cultures present in the classroom into a number of subjects. Such bridges will also motivate teachers to make an impact on reform of language learning and teaching, and they will strengthen professional networks by providing several international and national meetings. How do we make sure our bridges do not collapse? This can be done by: creating strong links with other educators; empowering language professionals to provide innovative materials; setting up a collaborative body of professionals with all the members of our educational community (head teachers, teachers, advisers, parents, social workers, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), etc.) in order to encourage democratic citizenship, social cohesion, mutual understanding and respect between the members of our community; 7

10 creating networks including educational institutions and organisations at national and international level, with the aim of contributing to curriculum changes in order to have fairer societies in the near future. We hope that the materials we present in this publication will help educators to build the bridges needed to make changes in our profession. These bridges will contribute to building a knowledgeable and fairer world where every citizen can develop his or her own abilities and skills to live in peace. 8

11 2. Development of the project The main outcome of the project is the production of materials in three languages (English, French and Spanish) to teach other subjects at primary and secondary level. The project developed around the following main events: the initial workshop (September 2008); two network meetings (September 2009 and June 2010); two editorial team meetings (September 2010 and January 2011) The initial workshop The four team members and the two associated experts first met in January 2008 to prepare the first workshop. It was decided to build up sets of activities to be presented as examples to the participants and to write a questionnaire for teachers and learners. The workshop opened with a presentation of the symbolic meaning of the project s central metaphor: bridges. Indeed, throughout the three-day meeting, the participants were made aware of the absolute necessity of bridging gaps between: language learners and language users; foreign languages and the languages of the pupils; mother tongue(s) and the official school language; content and language integrated learning (CLIL) and plurilingualism. The workshop was also an opportunity to present the questionnaire, the sets of tasks developed by the team members and also the template for the development of new materials. The tasks were reviewed by participants who provided feedback to the team members. This hands-on and democratic process sensitised the participants to the aims of the project and established a fruitful relationship between the co-ordinating team and the participants. Central to the future and successful development of ConBaT+ tasks was articulation of the principles that would guide the participants over the following months. At the workshop the website of the project was presented. 9

12 2.2. The network meetings The 2009 network meeting enabled the team and the participants to review the materials they had created and piloted in their countries. We now had 18 sets of activities covering 12 school subjects for a whole range of target groups (from early primary to upper secondary school). We exchanged feedback to improve them and ensured that the plurilingual and pluricultural dimensions were successfully included in the materials. Between the two meetings, the participants elaborated a new series of materials and the team members concentrated on writing the rationale for the publication. The 2010 network meeting was devoted to finalising the materials, discussing the rationale and producing a new template for the final version of the materials The editorial team meetings The 2010 editorial meeting took place in Canada where the team had been invited to present the project. The team meeting was followed by a symposium and workshop at the Official Languages and Bilingualism Institute (OLBI), University of Ottawa. The team reviewed the template materials and the rationale. The 2011 editorial meeting was devoted to the preparation of the final version of the present kit for publication. Final decisions about the organisation of the book and the website were taken, in co-operation with the ECML team. 10

13 3. Rationale 3.1. Content-based teaching Content-based teaching in Europe The European Commission s position with regard to content-based teaching is clear: [the approach] in which pupils learn a subject through the medium of a foreign language, has a major contribution to make to the Union s language learning goals (European Commission 2003: 8). This view is justified by the belief that content-based teaching provides immediate relevance for language learners. In other words, the transfer from being a language learner to becoming a language user happens at the time of learning as opposed to a putative later stage. Moreover, the approach allows pupils to experience the language differently, as well as to view the content from a different perspective. Another advantage associated with CLIL is the potential time-saving component that the integration of a language into curriculum content affords. Key data on teaching languages at school provided by Eurydice ( ) indicates that content-based teaching is included in normal provision in most education systems, yet the report also acknowledges that no more than a minority of pupils are catered for. Although regional and/or minority languages are among the languages integrated into content (see for example the Basque and Catalan experiences below), the provision of English still dominates the language learning landscape of Europe. English is compulsory in 13 European countries (more than 90% of learners in secondary education). In countries where English is not compulsory, pupils choose this language in equally large numbers (close to 90%). Learning English at primary level is also on the rise, particularly in the Latin countries of southern Europe. Encouraging evidence emerges from the Basque Country where content-based teaching/ learning has prevailed for the past 20 years. Similarly, and as far back as 1983, the linguistic immersion programme was introduced for the first time in Catalonia beginning at pre-school age. It was a turning point in the consideration of Catalan as the main teaching and communicative language in schools. Spanish is the second language and English and/or French are the third or fourth languages in primary and secondary education. Recently many schools introduced CLIL in secondary education and some primary schools are using Catalan, Spanish and English to teach the different subjects of the curriculum. The Catalan and Basque educational contexts appear to enable the concept of plurilingualism to flourish within a CLIL approach where learners are expected to achieve a B2 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR see below) for Basque/Catalan and Spanish, a B1 for English and/or an A2 for French at the end of compulsory education. 11

14 A longitudinal study conducted between 2004 and 2006 explored learners competence in English and in subject content, and how other languages (Basque and Spanish) were affected. In terms of linguistic competence, CLIL learners showed superior competence to non-clil students. This difference increased longitudinally. With regard to content knowledge, learners performed equally well when compared to non-clil students who had learned the content through Basque or Spanish (Lasagabaster and Ruiz de Zarobe 2010). More evidence in this regard continues to emerge (see Ruiz de Zarobe, Sierra and Gallardo del Puerto, 2011). Interestingly, one of the success factors in this experience was attributed to teachers high motivation linked to the fact that these teachers had a language degree but, most importantly, to the support they received in the design of materials as well as training seminars. Our hope is that the ConBaT+ materials provided here will contribute further to supporting teachers in their plurilingual CLIL endeavours Key competences for lifelong learning a European reference framework (2006) Many a language teacher will be familiar with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages which enables the mutual recognition of language qualifications to facilitate educational and occupational mobility. Apart from this, curriculum developers may be aware of the Key Competences for Lifelong Learning framework, which in turn, proves most relevant for the development of CLIL programmes. This framework aims to inform national educational bodies when revising curricula. However, the framework can also assist schools and their teachers in setting up a CLIL programme by examining the set of skills which they might like to emphasise at any given time. The framework reflects European efforts to achieve commonly agreed educational objectives. Each key competence combines a set of knowledge, skills and attitudes described in Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. European Reference Framework (European Commission 2007). There are eight key competences in this European framework: 1. communication in the mother tongue; 2. communication in foreign languages; 3. mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology; 4. digital competence; 5. learning to learn; 6. social and civic competences; 7. sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and 8. cultural awareness and expression. 12

15 The following description shows how this framework will prove particularly relevant to teachers when developing CLIL programmes and associated materials, since overlapping of competences, with language and culture for learning at its core, characterises CLIL itself: Many of the competences overlap and interlock: aspects essential to one domain will support competence in another. Competence in the fundamental basic skills of language, literacy, numeracy and in information and communication technologies (ICT) is an essential foundation for learning, and learning to learn supports all learning activities. There are a number of themes that are applied throughout the Reference Framework: critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking, and constructive management of feelings play a role in all eight key competences (2007: 5). In parallel, the European Qualifications Framework provides a useful set of indicators from Level 1 in primary education to Level 8 at tertiary level. This document can help match each key competence with the desired outcome at the appropriate level. 1 Mindful of the eight key competences mentioned above, it may be useful to consider a few basic content-based learning principles that contribute to the enrichment of content teaching while fostering the acquisition of knowledge, skills and (positive) attitudes Conceptualising content-based teaching While there are many models of CLIL delivery, the approach is characterised by a language-sensitive approach to the teaching of content. Focus on language has led to a consideration of the type of language needed by learners (and in some cases by teachers) in order to make the content accessible. In the context of the Canadian bilingual programmes, Cummins (1984) identified two linguistic dimensions in formal instruction, namely basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive and academic language proficiency (CALP). Each dimension plays a role in the learning process: BICS places fewer demands on the learner as the language is highly contextualised and supported by other means of communication, for example gestures. On the other hand, CALP relates to the language required for the learning of the content and places greater cognitive demands because of its decontextualised nature. Some 20 years later, another similar model emerged in Europe also recognising the tension between the linguistic and cognitive challenges presented to learners (CLIL Matrix ). Both the Canadian and the European models recommend that content be cognitively challenging but supported by more accessible and contextualised language. However, Coyle (2007) argues that the dual focus on language and content is not sufficient in itself to realise the full potential of CLIL. A more holistic approach to CLIL pedagogies, varied as these may be, needs to be articulated within a coherent 1 This framework is available at: 2 Available at 13

16 framework. This framework allows the following four dimensions the 4Cs to be taken into account when embarking on the development of CLIL pedagogies: content/communication/cognition/culture. The 4Cs Framework focuses on the interrelationship between content (subject matter), communication (language), cognition (learning and thinking) and culture (social awareness of self and otherness ). It takes account of integration on different levels: learning (content and cognition), language learning (communication and cultures) and intercultural experiences (Coyle 2007: 550). Coyle believes that Culture(s) permeates the whole (2007: 550), to such an extent that context and culture constitute the actual frame of the recently revised 4Cs Framework (see Figure 1 below) in order to foster what Cummins (2004) describes as global citizenship and/or social awareness of self and otherness (Coyle 2007: 550). 14

17 Context Culture Culture Context Content Communication Cognition Culture Context Context Figure1: The 4Cs Framework (adapted from Coyle et al. 2010: 41) Similarly, the European Commission prioritises intercultural knowledge, understanding and communication skills by placing these dimensions at the top of their list of benefits associated with a CLIL approach as evidenced below: CLIL's multi-faceted approach can offer a variety of benefits. It: builds intercultural knowledge and understanding develops intercultural communication skills improves language competence and oral communication skills develops multilingual interests and attitudes provides opportunities to study content through different perspectives allows learners more contact with the target language does not require extra teaching hours complements other subjects rather than competes with them 15

18 diversifies methods and forms of classroom practice increases learners' motivation and confidence in both the language and the subject being taught (European Commission 2008). In a communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, Europe acknowledges that learning one lingua franca is not enough to grow as a truly multilingual community and to create individual multilingualism (European Commission 2005: 3). This aspiration led to the recommendation that all Europeans should acquire two languages in addition to his or her mother tongue (ibid: 3). However, a 2009 Eurydice comparative study recognises that Europe also comprises a significant immigrant population and calls for measures to foster communication with immigrant families and the teaching of heritage languages for immigrant children. A number of European countries have recently established strategic policies concerned with the phenomenon of migration in their educational systems that see the linguistic diversity linked to the mother tongue of immigrant pupils as a benefit and reflect a readiness to cultivate this diversity (Eurydice 2009: 27). In this context and given Coyle s view of culture permeating the framework for CLIL, the question of integrating the reality of classroom diversity into CLIL teaching practice emerges Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism awareness of languages and cultures Contemporary societies are characterised by multilingualism and complex cultural exchanges. This social diversity appears together with a complexity of identities at the individual level. Educational institutions can no longer ignore the challenge offered by the encounters and interactions between languages and cultures in the classroom. The aim of the ConBat+ project is to take this dimension into account and to enhance learners plurilingual and pluricultural competence (Coste, Moore and Zarate 1997). It does not consist of the juxtaposition of competences in several languages but constitutes a global and composite competence and varies according to the specific combinations of linguistic and cultural abilities experienced by each individual. The CEFR defines it as the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent, has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures (Council of Europe 2001: 168). This definition relies on the numerous studies conducted in the fields of psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics which have shown that languages and cultures cannot be seen as separate entities coexisting in isolation and 16

19 added in a cumulative way through individual experiences. They interact under flexible and diversified dynamic interactions both at social and individual levels. Cook (1992) and, later, Herdina and Jessner (2002) described multilingual proficiency as a wholistic system. The description of plurilingual competence as a system enables the inclusion of its complexity and its unity within the same coherent whole. In other words, the specificity of any single language coexists with the mutual influences and connections between the components of the individual repertoires: This means that on the one hand the dynamic model is separatist or modular in interpreting the involved language systems and factors as separate modules, but assumes on the other hand that the subsystems outlined interact with each other and influence each other in the complex and dynamic system we call multilingualism (Herdina and Jessner 2002: ). Recent empirical studies focusing on how to raise awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity and how to develop plurilingual proficiency at school have been conducted at the European level. The main outputs of projects such as Evlang 3 ( ), Janua Linguarum 4 ( ) and Language Educator Awareness 5 (LEA, ) were published teaching materials (Evlang, Janua Linguarum) and teacher-training modules (LEA) favouring the development of knowledge, attitudes and skills related to otherness, plurality and diversity. These projects have their roots in the movement initiated by Hawkins (1984) who proposed the introduction of a bridging subject called awareness of language into the British curriculum. This approach aims to complement language learning by learning about language and languages and to stimulate not only the pupils curiosity and interest in languages and cultures but also their observation skills and language analysis skills. The main objectives are to challenge pupils to ask questions about language and discuss diversity in order to set the foundations of a general language education, which the CEFR now puts forward as a major issue for language teaching. The awareness of languages, cultures, plurilingualism and pluriculturalism, in the senses defined above, is the major aim of ConBat+. The teaching materials assembled in the present publication have been conceived to foster positive attitudes towards other languages, their speakers and their cultures by offering learners the opportunity to compare the target L2 to other languages whether or not they are their mother tongues. Another challenge, closely linked to the first one, is to enrich the knowledge of any subject content with the various points of view offered by other languages and cultures on this particular content and to emphasise the connections and exchanges between languages and cultures. At the same time, pupils whose first language (L1) is different from the official language(s) of instruction have the opportunity to see that the languages in their 3 European Commission, Socrates Lingua, co-ordinator: M. Candelier (see Candelier 2003a). 4 European Commission, Socrates Comenius and ECML (Graz, Council of Europe), co-ordinator: M. Candelier (see Candelier 2003b). 5 LEA, ECML (Graz, Council of Europe), co-ordinator: M. Bernaus (see Bernaus et al. 2007). 17

20 repertories are valued and referred to as different but equal in ways of representing reality through language. For all the learners, whatever their repertoires and cultural backgrounds, the distanced approach to content because of the L2 is enhanced by the interlinguistic and intercultural comparisons; thus, the approach promotes the favourable development of the learner's whole personality and sense of identity in response to the enriching experience of otherness in language and culture (Council of Europe 2001: 1). It combines the promotion of attitudes, such as the acceptance of differences and the valorisation of plurality, with the development of skills in the field of metalinguistic and metacommunicative abilities by stimulating learners reflection about language. The integrated approach to languages and cultures proposed in the project is both transand interdisciplinary. It includes the integration of all the languages and cultures present in the classroom (the official language(s) of instruction, the L2 used for content, the other languages taught and the languages of the individual, that is, the repertoires of the pupils) within non-linguistic subjects ConBaT+: reconciling CLIL with plurilingualism and pluriculturalism The + in the acronym ConBaT+ suggests that content-based teaching needs to be complemented by some added value. This added value is related to linguistic and cultural diversity. The project places the concepts of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism at the core of a content-based approach. The aim of the ConBaT+ project is to produce CLIL materials in three languages English, French and Spanish for the teaching of other subjects at primary and secondary level. Concrete support is provided for the CLIL practitioner wishing to integrate the concept of plurilingualism/culturalism in his or her class. How can awareness of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism be raised in the context of CLIL? First, this can be done by using an L2 to teach any subject in the curriculum and, second, by offering the pupils whose L1 is a minority language the opportunity to use it for specific activities. At the same time, those pupils may contribute to the enrichment of any topic presented in the subject in question, by comparing the way in which the same topic is viewed in his or her country of origin. Furthermore, the materials present an intercultural approach. In this connection, empirical research shows that more positive and accepting views of other cultures are more likely to be held when learners experience other languages (Rubenfeld et al. 2006). Moreover, this project and its products which aim to reconcile different approaches to language learning and teaching take into account views articulated by Wolff (2002): 18

21 It is absolutely necessary to reform language teaching what is new is the way in which different language learning approaches which have developed in isolation, are brought together in order to promote more efficient language teaching and multilingualism (Wolff 2002: 184). As pointed out by Candelier (2006), a plurilingual approach is not content dependent; any subject may introduce a plurilingual aspect to the content. Equally, CLIL is methodologically neutral and can incorporate any learning/teaching approach (Little 2003: 39). Consequently the integration of a plurilingual approach into content-based learning is both sensible and innovative. ConBaT+ proposes a means to manage diversity through a plurilingual and pluricultural approach that can help to relieve the increasing pressure on teachers to accommodate diversity. Pressure associated with overcrowded curricula can also be alleviated through content-based instruction designed to be cross-curricular, that is, a content-based and plurilingual activity can be linked to several subjects in the curriculum. Finally, with regard to a pedagogical approach for ConBat+, the combination of three approaches enables the realisation of the project aims. First, considering the key competences for lifelong learning, a competence-based approach with a focus on tasks should be adopted. Focus on task accommodates a focus on content that is, text or input which in turn accommodates a plurilingual approach focusing on languages and their speakers that is, the learners. Such a combination fosters the development of positive attitudes as illustrated below in Figure 2. 19

22 Figure 2: A pedagogical approach for ConBaT+ To summarise, ConBaT+: evolves from the experience of previous projects; impacts on reform processes in language teaching by integrating pluriligualism and pluriculturalism into content-based learning; provides concrete support to practitioners through the production of quality materials for the plurilingual/cutural CLIL classroom; brings tangible added value to content-based learning; contributes to change processes in national contexts by empowering professionals of languages to manage ethnic and cultural heterogeneity as well as overcrowded curricula. 20

23 3.4. A languages-sensitive curriculum A key feature of content-based teaching is the adoption of a language-sensitive approach to content. This implies that all language skills are considered and exploited in a way that will enable learners to access content as well as to use language in a meaningful way. To this effect language learning strategies are activated and include reading strategies, writing strategies, speaking strategies and listening strategies. An example of the promotion of these strategies is found in the following activity prepared for this project: You need to become real experts, so use as many strategies as you can to become more and more familiar with the content of the expert card: one of you explains, the others listen and help, ask each other questions, quiz each other... When your teacher tells you to work in pairs with someone from your expert group, take turns explaining the text to each other without looking at it. The listener can look at the text and help the speaker. (from A symphony of fractions by Oriol Pallares and Carlota Petit) This example shows the high level of interaction which takes place between the content and the learner as he/she engages with cognitive challenges as well as the wide variety of language learning strategies that promote both comprehension and social interaction in a real communicative situation. This particular activity is cross-curricular, as both music and mathematics are targeted. However, as pointed out in section 3.2., educational practitioners can no longer ignore the linguistic and cultural diversity that exist in our classrooms. Therefore, it is up to us teachers to provide opportunities for this diversity to be heard by all learners. The following excerpt taken from the same unit of activities mentioned above shows how it is possible to evolve from a languagesensitive approach to content to language-sensitive behaviour in the classroom: Allegro, π, mezzo forte, ß, Lied. Can you think of languages and cultures that are important in the world of music? And in the world of maths? In some of the expert cards some languages and cultures are mentioned. In teams, take one of the languages you consider important in the world of music, and make a new expert card which contains new relations between music and/or maths and the new language you have chosen. What about your mother tongue? And what about other languages you may know? Taking everything you have learnt in this first and second part of the project, think of how many of these new music and maths concepts you can say in the languages you know. Make a word cloud like the one in activity 1. You can use the online tool Wordle ( (from A symphony of fractions by Oriol Pallares and Carlota Petit) 21

24 The focus on music and maths opens a window onto other languages through the terminology associated with these disciplines. The terminology also enables the smooth transition from academic language to the languages of the class. The following example shows how a plurilingual approach to content contributes to the development of language awareness and the strategic skills that learners can develop when confronted with multilingual information: Observez les phrases suivantes dans les différentes langues ci-dessous: Il fait chaud aujourd hui (français) Hace mucho calor hoy (espagnol) Es ist warm heute (allemand) It is warm today (anglais) Fa calor avui (catalan) Fa caldo oggi (italien) Discute avec ton voisin. De quoi est-il question? Reconnais-tu des mots? Y a-t-il des points communs (mot que tu reconnais, ordre des mots)? Des différences? Peux-tu traduire cette phrase dans d autres langues que tu connais? Partage ces nouvelles phrases avec le reste de la classe et ajoute-les aux phrases cidessus. Regarde maintenant plus attentivement la construction de toutes ces phrases. Réflexion en groupe-classe : que pouvez-vous en conclure? (from Notre terre nous nourrit by Nathalie Auger) Here, the target language is French and the task involves a comparison between the same expression in French, Spanish, German, English, Catalan and Italian. Children are encouraged to look for words they can recognise, to consider the word order in each of the sentences and to identify similarities and differences. This activity was conceived for a geography unit. Another example of the integration of plurilingualism in a content-based approach involves work on the etymology of words and their origins as shown below: 22

25 Look for the meaning of these words in a dictionary and try to guess which language they were borrowed from. avalanche: canyon: fjord: geyser: golf: iceberg: jungle: toundra: (from Motion in the ocean by Martine Kervran) This last example illustrates the cognitive challenges that the approach also offers; moreover, the activity promotes learner autonomy and gives useful opportunities for learners to develop dictionary skills. Two more examples will be discussed. The Japanese calligraphy unit is principally an awareness-raising activity which creates a sensorial experience of language for the learner; it is also an art activity. The learner is invited to observe and try his or her hand at Japanese calligraphy following the instructions on the website. It also encourages children to pronounce words from different languages, that is, to exercise their jaws and tongue around new sound systems. In order to succeed in completing the task, children must become aware of the syllables that constitute a word and recognise word boundaries. Finally, the unit promotes positive attitudes to other languages and their speakers, as children who speak other languages can also draw and pronounce nouns in their own language for the class. The set of tasks proposed in Fêtons la Déclaration Universelle des Droits de l Homme promotes a variety of language skills in many languages. For example, Task 2 exposes learners to languages from the USA, Egypt, Mexico, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, France, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Nepal, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, South Africa and New Zealand and asks children to discriminate between the sounds for the word free aurally in Arabic, Spanish and other languages. The content deals with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a typical topic in civic education. Finally, it is likely that awareness of the potential of plurilingualism on the part of the CLIL teacher will lead to the systematic integration of a language-sensitive approach to content. Given that CLIL proposes that culture permeates its conceptual framework, one simply needs to recognise the diversity and dynamism that fundamentally characterise culture since there is no culture of one. Similarly, if learners linguistic repertoires are actively promoted in the classroom, the coexistence of languages, as 23

26 well as the linguistic and cultural influences, will emerge naturally. Hence, plurilingualism becomes a useful instrument for the development of language learning strategies, creates a cognitively enriching experience of the content and is a means of acknowledging the languages of the class that, so often, remain unheard and separate from the shared reality of learners during school hours. 24

27 4. Beliefs and attitudes towards content-based teaching and plurilingualism/ culturalism Introduction As part of the CONBAT+ project, a survey was developed to study attitudes toward content-based learning and plurilingualism. The survey has 32 items and was administered in 12 countries (Armenia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France, Finland, Greece, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain, and Sweden) 6. The following pages present a brief statistical report on the data gathered from 72 teachers and 558 students. If there is an overall conclusion emerging from the data analysis, it is that attitudes toward content-based and plurilingual approaches to learning are positive, among both students and teachers. Therefore, we believe that students and teachers will be receptive to the CONBAT+ materials. The survey In developing items for the survey, care was taken to write an equal number of items reflecting positive and negative attitudes. This avoids a response set bias where participants circle the same response for every item as a way to more quickly complete the questionnaire. Items were written to reflect the advantages of content-based and plurilingual education, and also to address areas of concern that might be reflected in negative attitudes. It is important to keep in mind the wording of each item (positive or negative) when interpreting the results. For example, respondents can express a favourable attitude toward plurilingualism either by agreeing with a positive item or by disagreeing with a negative item. Demographic information Teachers. A total of 74 teachers completed a version of the survey modified to be appropriate for teachers. The sample of teachers was predominantly female (84%) with an average age of 39 years. The language of content-based instruction most often was English (70%). Almost all teachers had a university degree, but only 27% of the sample received formal training in content-based teaching techniques. It should be noted that over half of the teacher sample (63%) were from Romania. The teachers responses are summarised in Table 1, along with the student responses. In general, the teachers and 6 For the complete set of responses see Appendix 1. 25

28 students attitudes are consistent with each other and show a similar pattern of endorsing the items. Given that the overall sample of teachers is small and tends to be from one location, further statistical analysis of the teacher data will not be reported here. Students. A total of 558 students, from 18 educational institutions in 12 countries completed the survey. Approximately 40% of the sample was male, 60% was female. The ages of the students ranged from 6 to 32 years of age, with most of the respondents in their teenage years (average age = 15 years). The majority of students in the sample (60%) had two years or less of content-based learning. Analysis of student responses Even without a great deal of experience in content-based and plurilingual classrooms, students showed positive attitudes. Examining the most popular items in the survey, we see that students endorse content-based instruction to improve language learning and expressing ideas in different languages. Q1. Content-based activities can help me to improve language learning (77% agree). Q7. Content-based activities help me to value the richness of being able to express my ideas using different languages (69% agree). Students also enjoy being a student at a school that uses content-based approach Q12. I am fully satisfied with being a student in this school. (69% agree). Concerns that students have negative attitudes toward the approach or toward other cultures are not supported by the data. The respondents disagreed most strongly with the following three statements: Q9. Introducing several languages in class is a waste of time and energy (74% disagree). Q23. Content-based teaching leads me to negative attitudes toward speaking other languages (74% disagree) Q14. I do not see any benefit from content-based teaching (77% disagree). Examining the data as a whole, the attitudes tend to be positive and supportive of the goals of content-based and plurilingual approaches. In order to examine further development of the scale itself, a principle components analysis was conducted. This analysis allows for the reduction of the large number of items into a smaller number of underlying common factors or key components of the responses. Using the scree plot as a guide to the appropriate number of factors underlying the 32 items, three factors were extracted. Factor I: Positive attitude toward CONBAT+ 26

29 Factor II: Acceptance and promotion of the CONBAT+ approach Factor III: Satisfaction with institution and teachers. An aggregate score was computed for each factor by adding the scores on the items that are associated with each factor. This approach produced three aggregate variables, Attitudes, Acceptance, and Satisfaction. We should note that Question 14 was associated with both Factors I and II but was assigned to the aggregate for factor II because it was a little more strongly correlated with that factor. A further note of caution is in order when interpreting Factor II (Acceptance and promotion of the CONBAT+ approach). It is important to keep in mind both that (a) all of the factor loadings are negative and (b) that all of the items reflect negative attitudes. In effect, this double negative results in a scale that reflects positive opinions concerning acceptance and promotion of the CONBAT+ approach. When computing the scores for the aggregates, we reversed all of the negatively worded items (by changing responses of 5 into 1, 4 into 2, and so on). In this way, higher scores on the aggregates indicate positive attitudes, acceptance, and satisfaction. The three aggregates were significantly positively inter-correlated. Students with more positive attitudes tended to show greater acceptance of the CONBAT+ approach and satisfaction with their school. There also was a weak tendency for older students to show greater acceptance of CONBAT+, but lower satisfaction with school. Previous research has shown that students attitudes toward school generally decline as they get older; we believe this correlation reflects a general trend in school and is not tied specifically to languages. The correlation with acceptance, though small, is encouraging if one takes a longer view of learning, beyond schooling. 27

30 Attitudes 1,0 Attitudes Acceptance Satisfaction Acceptance 0,59 1,0 Satisfaction 0,32 0,14 1,0 Age 0,06 * 0,10-0,14 Table 1: Correlations among the aggregates and with age of student Note: * correlation is not significant at p <.05 One of the questions that frequently occurs in the applied linguistics literature is whether there are differences between boys and girls in their attitudes toward languages and cultures. We found that girls had statistically significantly more positive attitudes and satisfaction than boys. Figure 1 shows the mean (average) level of endorsement of the items (on a scale of 1 5). Figure 1: Difference between boys and girls on the aggregates 28

31 Conclusion In conclusion, the pilot survey shows that three factors underlie the items in the questionnaire: Attitudes toward CONBAT+, Acceptance of its approach, and Satisfaction with the schools where the programme materials were developed. Both students and teachers expressed positive attitudes, acceptance and satisfaction. There was a slight tendency for boys to be less positive than girls and teachers might wish to consider the differences between boys and girls reactions to the programme materials. Overall, we believe that students and teachers will be receptive to the CONBAT+ materials. 29

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33 5. Sample activities for the classroom 7 Four didactic units for children and teenagers are presented here. They include activities in Spanish, French and English in the subjects of mathematics, gymnastics, music, social sciences, history, art, physics and geography. The following symbols are used in the materials: denotes plurilingual and pluricultural content denotes individual work denotes pair work denotes group work denotes whole class activity represents student materials represents teacher guidelines 7 This and other classroom activities relating to plurilingualism and pluriculturalism are available in downloadable format from the website 31