The effect of a pastoralist tradition in the mountains of Lesotho today

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3 The effect of a pastoralist tradition in the mountains of Lesotho today Livestock, and particularly cattle, have always played a central role in the lives of the Basotho (Lesotho people). Traditionally herders, the people from the small mountainous country of Lesotho are culturally and economically attached to livestock. Raising animals is their principal economic activity; they provide meat, milk, wool, transport, labour power and income. Lesotho s main exports are wool and mohair and, besides, livestock is regarded as an important indicator of wealth, which can be sold for cash in times of need. Therefore, the larger the number of animals a family owns, the wealthier it is. This cultural value amongst a rapidly increasing population, coupled with inadequate livestock husbandry techniques is imposing a large pressure on land in the mountains of Lesotho. Severe environmental degradation is occurring, and arable land is being lost; it is estimated that around 40 million tons of soil is lost by erosion in Lesotho every year 1. This land degradation is affecting both crop and animal production, soils are losing their fertility, yields are low and quality of livestock is poor, which is generating food insecurity for a large number of families whose livelihoods depend on farming. Alarm is raising and there are different approaches being taken to tackle this issue throughout the country. Farmers like Lejang Tsotetsi, who taught forestry at the Agriculture College, are using their limited resources and knowledge to experiment different livestock management techniques that can stop land degradation and improve the quality of their animals and crops, with the hope that, one day, they will be self-sufficient. /// In sight of the increasing land degradation in the mountains of Lesotho, some farmers are bringing in alternative livestock management practices to preserve their livelihoods and their environment. 167 Lesotho Overgrazing and land degradation According to the traditional Basotho way of raising livestock (cattle, goats and sheep), the animals are taken by herders to graze on communal land. In the case of the foothills, which are plateaus at the base of the mountains, most of the land is ploughed for crops, so there is a limited area for grazing. For this reason, livestock owned by the farmers in the foothills are taken to higher pastures in the mountains during the summer, with the traditional authorities regulating the right of access to pastures. This means that during the summer, grazing areas in the highlands hold livestock from mountain and foothills farmers. Today, the population is increasing at an annual growth rate of 2.6%, and livestock is still seen as a sign of wealth like in the past, so mountain people have an average of 15 to 20 cows per family. Most of the farmers continue practising the traditional way of grazing, taking the animals to the range lands in the mountains. Over stocking of mountain pastures is causing that the land grazing capacity of these areas is overpassed, leading to soil compaction and poor animal health. The results are that there is not enough food for the animals, they are forced to travel long distances to find grass, and the land is being severely eroded. Traditionally, Basotho farmers from the mountains do not grow fodder for their animals, all their food intake is from grazing, so now, as livestock does not have enough food during the summer, in the winter they run out of reserves, and often die.

4 Changing the livestock farming approach Some farmers, in the sight of the negative consequences that the traditional practices are having in the present context, are starting to re-orientate their activities, with the objective of maximizing productivity, securing food supply, and insuring some income for their households. This is the case of Lejang Tsotetsi, and his eleven fellow members of the Machache Dairy Farmers Association. The association drew the conclusion that given the present situation, raising dairy cows is more suitable than raising meat cows. On the one hand, one needs a lower number of animals to make a living and, also, dairy cows need to stay confined by the household, so the pressure of livestock grazing in the highlands is reduced. A reduced number of cows can be kept in the homestead, be fed fodder grown in the nearby fields and water fetched for them by the farmers. This way the animals do not have to walk long distances, which is energy intensive that now can concentrate in the production of milk. The Machache Association is focussing all its efforts on upgrading their breeds. Imported improved dairy breeds are too expensive, so what they are doing is upgrading the local breeds. The objective is to obtain very productive cows but adapted to the particular conditions of the foothills and highlands of Lesotho. The advantage of the local breeds is that, apart from resistant, they are good for milk and for meat, so the farmers get a dual-purpose animal. The Association is being supported to upgrade its livestock by the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock which is providing them with training and insemination material. In terms of marketing of the milk, the Association does not have enough volume yet, so the farmers are using the milk for home consumption and selling the little surplus locally. In the future, they aim at organizing the sale together in town, and there are also plans of engaging in processing of dairy products. At the moment they use the association to raise funds to buy inputs in bulk together, like fodder for the winter. The good results of this change of direction on the farming techniques are starting to be observed by the neighbour farmers, and the association is used as a ground to share ideas and experiences, and to learn from each other. They also receive trainings from the extension services and other organizations, so they can keep improving the management of their land and their animals. Need to educate on good management practices It is crucial that farmers are educated on how to manage their environment. People need knowledge to be able to use their resources without depleting them. For this, efforts should be put together in order to share information and exchange experiences, at local, national and Southern Africa regional level. The media should be used to spread good management practices, so they can reach everyone. The mountains can be a better option for future generations Life in the mountains means self-sufficiency, with a capacity to produce everything that is needed, and without having to consume imported products. It also gives a sense of peace and security, with a stronger feeling of belonging to a community.

5 In order to preserve this, and create a future for the mountains, we need to involve our children in our activities, inculcate in them the interest for agriculture, and the knowledge to manage their environment in a sustainable way. Staying in the mountains to farm can be a better option for the future generations than being unemployed in towns, but for that, the children and youth need to be educated, and to know how to best manage the land, and to get the maximum profit from the resources they have. Education would make a good change in the communities, and could solve most of the present problems in the mountains. 1. EU, 2002., Tackling Lesotho s food crisis. The Courier ACP-EU, no194, sept.-oct Lesotho Key words Agriculture and environment Soil degradation Breeding Housing management Erosion Traditional techniques upgrading

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7 Nestled in the Himalayas, the Kingdom of Nepal is a small country elevated over the world s summits, where mighty rivers flow from glaciers and feed on the monsoons. The water naturally bathes the territory as it slides down from heights of up to 29,000ft. Anyone would envy the green landscapes that fill the farmers with bliss. Nepal maintains relatively intact forests in 25% of its surface. Most of the population lives by the fertile plains of the Terai, since hilly and mountainous terrain has made the building of infrastructure and the introduction of technology a difficult task. This implies that organic production is nothing new to the inhabitants of the mountains; it has been kept in the mountains for many years and it is just waiting to be launched by the government and the market. Nevertheless the certification, labelling, and the very culture of organic consumption are far from this country s reality. /// The Organic Village (TOV) was founded only a year ago by a group of Nepalese environmentalists whose objective is to support and contribute to the development of local and foreign markets in which the organic products of the communities and those manufactured with energy renewable technologies, are promoted; selling them with their «Enviro-Guard» certification. Bringing the mountain closer to the market While the exporters look for high quality and low cost products, the communities located in the mountains face great difficulty placing these products in the market. Samir Newa, founder of The Organic Village, studied Business Administration but his real education, as he likes to call it, was obtained in the village of Baglung, where he worked for several years. He was in charge of implementing a solar energy system from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Access to electric energy in Nepal is difficult and expensive due to the complexity of the terrain. The solar energy program consisted of bringing this service to the communities that could not afford it in exchange for their local agricultural production. Through this programme Samir Newa took solar energy to the communities, looked for a way to market their products, and linked the communities to the market for future sales. The people did not need to worry about coming up with the money to pay for the electricity and technology; once they joined the program they got help promoting their work and products as long as they had a way of organising themselves. This gave Samir an idea that would later lead to the creation of The Organic Village. The first step was to get financing for a new project and then he would market the communities finest products in the cities. The financing came from the UNDP and The Organic Village was registered. This new project began its activities in December 2005 in the city of Kathmandu, the country s capital, with a store that sold organic products and handicrafts. 171 Nepal

8 Joining efforts, sharing benefits However, the biggest chore was just beginning. The store was ready and it was necessary to create a sense of awareness among the city people regarding the importance of consuming organic goods or products manufactured using renewable energy. This was a whole new challenge in the area. The Nepalese population was not used to consuming this kind of products, so Samir Newa had to come up with a way to create a market. A few months after the store opened, he found himself working on the creation of a restaurant that served its clients food made from 100% organic products produced by the communities. The Organic Bistro was born. In his opinion, the Nepalese middle class can not afford the standard prices of organic products. With this in mind, the restaurant designed inexpensive menus in order to reach broad segments and spread the organic culture message as far as possible. In spite of these measures, The Organic Bistro is mainly visited by upper class locals and foreign tourists. The gastronomic experience turns out to be quite delightful and the news reached the media: newspapers, magazines, and national television have visited the place confirming its novelty. The Organic Village and the wide network of producers are using the restaurant as a magnet to attract clients into the store, where they can find the resulting efforts of the communities work: 100% organic products or different articles manufactured from organic materials using renewable energy from technology that Newa himself brought to the mountains. A clear example of a successful synergy among the mountain people, the promotion of the communities autochthonous work, the use of solar energy, and a store in charge of marketing are the products made from Lokta paper, naturally obtained from the homonymous tree. This paper is completely natural, free of acid and chemicals. It has great quality and durability and has stronger fibres than the average machinemade paper. The crafting of these sheets is an ancient Nepalese tradition; Buddhist and Hindu scriptures were written on this paper centuries ago. Lokta offers calendars, notebooks, greeting cards, lamp shades, and other products for the contemporary market. The Organic Village sells these products in the city and is now exporting them throughout Europe. All the products in The Organic Village catalogue are labelled with an Enviro-Guard seal. This assures the costumer that the products with the mentioned seal were produced free of pesticides or chemical fertilizers or are produced with renewable energy sources. Today, The Organic Village Works with 200 communities distributed along 30 of the 70 districts of Nepal, which benefits approximately 4,000 families. This has been accomplished by working alongside already established networks in Nepal; such is the case of its biggest ally, FECOFUN, the largest network of forest producers. The Organic Village does not go directly to the communities; instead it goes to the established groups that work with those communities. Being able to count with these alliances has allowed The Organic Village to be the only company in its field to offer such a wide and diverse variety of products. The other players in the Nepalese scene usually offer one kind of product. The variety of products, the established networking, and the national and international marketing of products from the Nepalese mountains make The Organic Village the undisputable leader in its field. These are considered pioneering efforts by the Nepalese

9 government. But this position is precisely what makes them struggle with a national and international market. They urge the government to help and support them in taking these products to other countries and continents. It s difficult to climb to the top of a mountain, Newa says, it s hard to walk steep routes. But once you reach the top you feel very proud. Only the sky is above you. Nothing bothers you. Mountains are quiet and peaceful places. His struggle consists of taking the people that already live in the mountains to that place where they can enjoy the peace and quiet, only a few meters above. The peak is not that far. 173 Nepal Key words Organic agriculture Local market Solar energy Community organization Market access

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11 Lesotho, a mountain farming country Lesotho is a small country in Southern Africa, completely surrounded by South Africa. It has a population of less than two million, with 49% living below the poverty line. 86% of Lesotho s labour force is engaged in subsistence agriculture, and the majority of the small scale farmers are poor. About 30% of rural people live in extreme poverty. Approximately 80% of the country is mountainous; the population of the foothills (plateaus) and highlands are significantly poorer than in other parts of the country 1. The primary cause for this is soil erosion, caused by over-grazing and bad land husbandry, which have lead to low agricultural productivity and food insecurity. The Machobane Farming System has been especially designed for these conditions. The techniques it promotes are becoming more and more popular amongst rural communities in the country. This system has been proven to provide food security and income to farmers practising it. Stephen Ralitsoele, a retired plant pathologist, is the Director of the Machobane Agricultural Development Foundation, which is in charge of spreading the philosophy of the farming method. /// The development of a particular farming system, especially designed for the hard conditions of the mountainous country of Lesotho, called Kingdom in the Sky, is proving to be successful in achieving food security and reducing poverty amongst rural communities. Migration, land degradation and poverty in the mountains Lesotho, as a small landlocked country, has strong economic dependence from its large neighbour. As such, Lesotho was a net exporter of human labour into the South African mines and industry in the past. This had a large impact upon mountain communities, as the migration of the male working force left females in charge of labour in households and fields. The lack of resources and the inappropriate farming techniques, such as monoculture, resulted in declining yields and therefore, food insecurity for many families in the mountains. The increase in the density of livestock is causing land degradation all over the country due to the over-grazing of pasture. Over-grazing coupled with deforestation for firewood, has lead to severe erosion and associated loss of soil fertility. The result has been a great reduction of land available for agriculture. In a country with more than 80% of the population reliant on subsistence agriculture, this is having a large social and economic impact. The particular situation in the mountains gets aggravating for the isolation of communities. Inherently poor communication and transport infrastructure make it more difficult for advice and extension agents to reach them. Then, people in the mountain remain unaware of alternative management techniques which could improve the fertility of their land and their food security. 175 Lesotho

12 A farming system to maximize the use of the available resources The Machobane Farming System was developed by Dr J.J. Machobane in the 1970s, after 13 years research on the agriculture management techniques that Basotho 2 smallholder farmers were using. The aim was to provide resource to poor farmers with a sustainable system that did not require expensive inputs, easy to implement, and supplied them with food all year around. The Machobane System not only proposes a change in farming techniques, but demands a certain conduct from the farmers who want to engage in it. The philosophy and conditions required are based on: self-reliance without external assistance, appreciation of their own resources available, readiness to work hard, practical learning and teaching on the field and teaching other neighbour farmers for spreading the technology 3. The System promotes organic fertilisers such as animal manure, ashes and organic waste, mixed in different proportions depending of the crop, to build and maintain soil fertility. It insists on having at least one animal in the household, which provides manure and food (milk, eggs, meat). It is important to reduce the number of animals grazing in the mountains, and better to have fewer animals of better quality and stronger; for this, the system recommends to have improved local breeds, rather than imported ones, which need more inputs and are less adapted to conditions in Lesotho. A central aim of the approach is to produce crops along the year. Traditional farming in Lesotho only considers three months for growing crops, and it focuses on monocultures of maize, wheat or potatoes. Machobane System uses crop rotation, intercropping (mixing different crops) and rely-cropping (planting the same crop at different times, so is harvested at different times). It introduces species and varieties, adapted to different weather conditions, such as winter wheat, peas and carrots. This way, even a small garden can supply a family s food throughout the year, the soil is covered with crops all the time, reducing erosion. The Machobane System also promotes cash crops, such as potatoes. In the mountains of Lesotho the conditions are excellent for this crop and, also, for the production of potato seeds of very high quality which, if certified and sold internationally, could raise incomes for mountain farmers. The farming system designed by Machobane is labour intensive requiring labour input all along the year. The difference with the conventional system is that the work required is not as hard, it is closer to the household, and the animals are stronger to do labour on the field like ploughing. This eases the work of women in charge of the field work. The value of the system has been recognised for achieving food security and poverty reduction. It has only been in recent years that some development agencies and the Lesotho government are introducing this system in their programmes. An example is the Sustainable Agricultural Development Programme for the Mountain Areas, funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) ten years ago. This programme was implemented by the Lesotho Government, who contracted the Machobane Agricultural Development Foundation to spread their farming system amongst farmers in the three main mountain areas of the country: Mokhotlong, Thaba Tseka and Qachas nek. The Machobane Foundation was chosen for the appropriateness of the system for the conditions in the mountains; and because their staff works directly on the ground in the mountains, so the Programme could use this

13 infrastructure already in place. Also, the government extension officers were trained on the farming system. Today, the Machobane Foundation continues its task of promoting this particular farming approach and making it accessible to smallholder farmers. In 2006 the Foundation has published a training manual on the practices of the Machobane System, and they have started networking with other countries to adapt the system to different conditions, so farmers from other Southern African countries can benefit from it. 1. IFAD, Rural poverty in Lesotho, 2. Generic name for people from Lesotho. 3. Pantanali, R., Lesotho: a note on the Machobane System. FAO Investment Centre, Occasional Paper Series, No. 7, September Lesotho Key words Sustainable agriculture Soil degradation Food security Fight against poverty Crop rotation Product diversification Soil fertilization

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15 Pueblos andinos, una historia de lucha Pakajaqi hoy conocido como Pacajes es una nación milenaria de raíz aymará. La provincia de Pacajes esta ubicada en el Altiplano Central, en el departamento de La Paz. El pueblo Pacaje siempre fue un pueblo cultivado, pacifico y progresista. Fue el constructor del Tiwanaku o Tiahuanaco megalítico (civilización precolombina cuyo territorio estaba ubicado en lo que ahora es la frontera del Perú y Bolivia). Este milenario pueblo de vida armónica con la Naturaleza o Pacha, desarrollaba el arte, la ciencia y la tecnología. Fue violentamente diezmado por la invasión española de Desde la caída del Imperio Inca, los españoles emprendieron el exterminio del Pueblo Pacaje en las minas de Potosí, en las haciendas y en los obrajes. Los Pacajes son una de las naciones aymaras que se encuentran representados en el Consejo Nacional de Ayllus y Markas de Qullasuyo (actualmente Bolivia), CONAMAQ. Fundado el 22 de Marzo de 1997, aglutina a once organizaciones denominadas SUYUS o Regionales. Los Ayllus y Markas son estructuras territoriales y socio organizacionales prehispánicas y que han sobrevivido a las divisiones administrativas o electorales impuestas por el Estado. /// Cada día más se requiere de un ordenamiento jurídico que de cuenta de las diferencias y reconozca la riqueza de las culturas ancestrales y la especificidad de los pueblos de montaña. No sólo 30 centímetros La Organización de la Naciones Unidas ha desempeñado un papel decisivo en la descolonización de los pueblos sobre la base del «principio de la igualdad de los derechos y la libre determinación de los pueblos» consagrados en la Carta de la ONU. Sin embargo, las naciones indígenas todavía se sienten sometidas a la violación de sus derechos y al no reconocimiento de su autodeterminación. Uno de los mayores problemas que visualizan en la región es la necesidad de reivindicar tierra y territorio, tenemos 30 CMS, no nos dan el espacio total, si hay minerales nos sacan del lugar, señala Víctor Cortez. Defienden el derecho ancestral que tienen sobre ese lugar, un derecho que no está ni escrito ni legalizado bajo las leyes actuales pero tiene más relevancia bajo sus propias costumbres. Así mismo, existe frustración por lo la marginación que sienten por parte del gobierno. No hay apoyo o estímulo en lo productivo para las comunidades indígenas. 179 Bolivia Leyes y tradiciones que resisten Esta comunidad posee una organización propia, y aunque las cosas han cambiado, es posible reconocer un sistema de gobierno ancestral, basado en la cosmovisión y en el manejo completo que tenían sus antepasados del tiempo, de la Pacha y el análisis del universo, que finalmente les entregaba información para planificar sus actividades.

16 Eso si, su sistema económico no logra encontrar el equilibrio de antaño. Si había buena producción, el sobrante se entregaba al gobernante para que éste la guardara y administrara en períodos de baja producción, hoy, ese sistema resulta imposible de implementar. Otra de las prácticas que tratan de conservar es la Ley de Reciprocidad Ayni, la cooperación con el trabajo del otro, para luego recibir a cambio esa misma cooperación sin pedir remuneración económica y poniendo en la tarea la misma voluntad que se recibió. Pero lamentablemente cada día se hace más difícil mantener esa forma de vida, es por ello que, como nunca, estas comunidades reconocen la importancia de tomar los resguardos correspondientes a fin de preservar estos modos de vida y saberes ancestrales. Reivindicaciones a todo nivel Para CONAMAQ es indispensable el derecho a tierra y territorio, y al recurso agua a fin de darle un uso racional para la producción y el consumo humano. En lo político, han establecido alianzas con entidades cívicas que están representadas en la Asamblea Constituyente para poder llevar allí sus reivindicaciones. Entre las más relevantes se encuentran la elección de sus propios usos y costumbres y la autodeterminación y su reconocimiento explícito por parte de la Asamblea Constituyente. Así también exigen al Senado la firma y respeto a los Tratados Internacionales, especialmente el de la Declaración de Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas de la ONU, que reconoce el derecho de estos pueblos a su autodeterminación y a preservar y fortalecer sus diferentes instituciones políticas, legales, económicas, sociales y culturales, al tiempo que mantienen sus derechos a participar de manera plena, si así deciden, de la vida económica, social y cultural de los países donde viven. Ante esta legalidad que los ampara, Cortez denuncia la falta la voluntad política para que en la práctica estos mandatos se cumplan. Una Pacha que reclama Cada vez se hace más necesario para esta organización el compartir y articularse con otros movimientos o pueblos con similares problemáticas, principalmente porque es indispensable una articulación a nivel andino para generar un ambiente internacional favorable a sus reivindicaciones. Cuando la montaña es el lugar en donde se ha nacido y criado, ésta pasa a ser parte de la vida, no podemos abandonarla, es como abandonar la madre. La tierra es nuestra madre y a la madre no se le vende ni negocia, concluye Cortez. Un país moderno e inclusivo no puede olvidar ni dejar de reconocer pueblos originarios, hacerlo genera diferencias y odiosidades replicables durante generaciones.

17 181 Bolivia Palabras clave Dimensión cultural del desarrollo Estado plurinacional Derecho consuetudinario Derecho territorial Autodeterminación de los pueblos Participación de la comunidad

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19 A commercial crop for the small farmers in the mountains Malawi s economy is based largely on agriculture, which accounts for more than 90% of its export earnings, contributes 45% of gross domestic product (GDP), and supports 90% of the population. Agricultural products for export come from both, commercial estates and smallholder farmers, with tobacco, tea, macadamia, cotton, coffee and sugar being the major exports. In particular, coffee production is dominated by smallholder farmers from the Northern Region of the country. The three quarters of Malawi consist of plateaux (750 to 1300 metres), and the Northern Region is divided into extensive highlands, including Viphya and Nyika Plateaux, and lowlands by the lake shore. Smallholder farming predominates on the highlands, besides the vast area protected by Nyika National Park, approximately 3,200 km2. Some farmers in these mountains, in the sight of the difficulties and limitations that they face for the fact of living in remote areas, have engaged in the production of coffee, taking advantage of the good conditions for this crop in the mountains. This cash crop has been grown there for some decades now, and the organization of coffee growers has evolved since then. Today, the small producers own their own business at association level, through the Smallholder Coffee Farmers Trust (SCFT), which processes the coffee and packs the product. The SCFT has taken them to be Malawian leaders in coffee exports and national market in Malawi. Haswell Zimba has worked for the Trust since 1982, and today holds the position of Coffee Association Adviser. He shares the ethos of his organization of empowering mountain people through their economic development, and explains the historical evolution and activity of the Coffee Trust. This is a singular initiative in the mountains of Malawi that is bringing tangible benefits for small farmers and encouraging them to remain in their territory. 183 /// Coffee growers from the mountains of Northern Malawi have built up a strong structure to support them in the production, processing and marketing of their cash crops. The result is a lucrative business that is taking their households out of poverty and encouraging farmers to stay on their land. Malawi Lack of opportunities for income in the mountains Life in the highlands of Northern Malawi is definitely influenced by the lack of communication infrastructures and remoteness. The country is one of the poorest in the world, with 65% of the population living below the poverty line, and mountain communities face even more constraints than the ones in the lowlands. Practically all the transport in Malawi is done by road, but roads in the highlands, which are often not asphalted, are in poor conditions and state of repair. Moreover, landslides are quite common in the Northern Region s mountains, given the fragile environment and the degraded soil due to inappropriate land management. This leads to humanitarian catastrophes, but also many bridges are washed away, cutting off any means of transport for the communities. The result is the difficulty for farmers to reach markets outside

20 their villages. They often have to carry their goods on their heads for long distances (sometimes 10 km). In addition, high transport expenses are incurred for their products to reach markets and their inputs to arrive to their farms. This makes subsistence farming non-profitable and extremely difficult for farmers to raise any income. A profitable crop for the mountains Coffee in Malawi grows in high areas, with elevations starting from 1,000 metres above sea level. It is mainly cultivated in the mountains of the Northern Region, where climate conditions are particularly good for the crop. Planting coffee is also a soil conservation measure in these areas, where erosion is a widespread problem, as the bushes are planted in contour lines therefore controlling run-off and reducing soil loss. Coffee is mainly planted by smallholders, so it is often inter-cropped with other species in order to supply food to the household; recently some farmers have started to plant macadamia trees, which can constitute another lucrative income source. This cash crop was introduced by the colonials more than forty years ago, and since then, small scale farmers have adopted it in search for income to their subsistence economy. After Independence, the government recognised the role that coffee was playing in raising incomes in the remote highland, and came up with the Special Crops Act, in combination with the Government Parastatal Smallholder Coffee Authority. The latter was in charge of marketing the coffee beans from farmers without processing them. But the Authority became heavily indebted, despite only paying growers 20-30% of the selling price, and in 1999 it was sold to the approximately 4,000 smallholder producers, who converted themselves into the Smallholder Coffee Farmers Trust. The remarkable management of the coffee business Since then, the strategy of the Trust has been to concentrate on increasing the quality of the coffee and to add value to the product, by processing part of the beans and selling a quality, packed and branded coffee; always trying to minimize costs, like reducing the dependence on expensive pesticides and introducing integrated pest management systems. This was achieved thanks to the team effort of the farmers, the Trust s management and some international donors. The result has been a turn-around of the business, which managed to clear its debt in 2003, while farmers get 70 to 80% of the revenue from their production. This success is even more remarkable as it happened during a period of low international coffee prices. The priority of the Trust and its employees has been to strengthen the farmers through their economic development, by improving the yields and quality of their coffee, organizing the grower members into local associations and increasing the financial returns going directly to the Trust members. The local associations are a particular characteristic of the Trust that give farmers a sense of ownership on the business, but also decentralizes part of the process and brings it closer to the farms. The primary processing of the crop is done at the local associations, where there are pulperies that are the machines that separate coffee pulps from beans. Beans are then transported to the processing facilities (secondary processing) in the town of Mzuzu, that are also own by the Trust. There is a project at the moment of establishing shops for inputs at the association level, which would solve the problem of transport so farmers would not need to carry inputs for long distances anymore.

21 Towards a Fair Trade certification Today, the processed and packed Mzuzu Coffee is the leader in the national market, and the Coffee Trust s exports dominate the commodity s international trade from Malawi. In the near future, the Trust is planning to become a farmers cooperative which will complete the transfer of power to the farmers, making them stronger and able to manage the business. Besides, the organization is about to obtain Fair Trade certification, which will ensure a fair price for their coffee going directly to the growers, and without being affected by the fluctuations of the international prices. The case of the Smallholder Coffee Farmers Trust is a clear example of how a sector in mountain communities, with serious physical and economical constraints, can be developed successfully, bringing income to least favoured areas in developing countries. The key: to have a well organized strong bottom-up structure to empower the grassroots, combined with a committed management team, and to orientate activities in a way that the producers maximize their benefits while being respectful to their environment and their territory. Moreover, any action to be taken has to be done through consultation, addressing problems together and not imposing solutions to the communities. The future of the smallholder coffee sector in Malawi, led by producers from the Northern Region looks very promising. This cash crop is gaining importance in terms of export revenues for the country, and therefore, the government is turning to be more interested on it. This means more power for the sector, which is gaining more and more access to decision-making grounds and influence. And, as smallholders coffee is always grown in the highlands, this could bring a promising future for the mountains. 185 Malawi Key words Subsistence farming Unequal land distribution Sustainable land management Education Institutional development

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23 Située au nord de l Algérie, la Kabylie est une région berbère divisée en deux par les français, la Grande et Petite Kabylie ou Haute et Basse Kabylie, suite à l insurrection de Son nom viendrait de l arabe Al-qabila signifiant «tribu», mais aujourd hui ses habitants préfèrent l appeler Tamurt n Leqvayel soit «La terre des Kabyles». Poétiquement, elle porte aussi le nom de Tamurt idurar, «la terre des montagnes». Elle fait partie des montagnes de l Atlas, en bordure de la mer Méditerranée, et sa côte étendue sur plusieurs centaines de kilomètres constitue ce que chacun désigne par «la corniche kabyle». Trois grands massifs occupent la plus grande partie de la région. Au nord, la chaîne de la Kabylie maritime culmine à mètres ; au sud, le Djurdjura atteint mètres ; et entre les deux se présente le massif Agawa. Ce dernier, d une altitude moyenne de 800 mètres accueille la plus grande ville de la Grande Kabylie, Tizi-Ouzou, chef-lieu de la wilaya du même nom. L activité pastorale est la principale occupation de la société de montagne kabyle. L élevage des abeilles est une activité traditionnelle et séculaire des communautés rurales algériennes. Cette activité constitue non seulement une source d approvisionnement énergétique, le miel, et un instrument dit thérapeutique, la gelée royale ; mais c est aussi une source de revenus pour les agriculteurs implantés dans des zones difficiles, comme c est le cas de la montagne. /// Dans les montagnes kabyles, les ruches sont laissées à lʼabandon à cause des coûts dʼentretien quʼelles impliquent et du manque de formation des apiculteurs. Des ruches laissées à l abandon «Plus d un an après les intempéries de l hiver 2005, les apiculteurs de Kabylie se remettent difficilement des pertes occasionnées par le froid» (El Watan, quotidien indépendant). Ensevelies pendant plusieurs jours sous deux mètres de neige, leurs ruches ont été décimées par le gel. L apiculture, comme toute activité agricole, est très influencée par le climat et doit en subir les caprices. Sa productivité est aléatoire et peut être très variable d une année sur l autre. En Kabylie, la faible pluviométrie au printemps, additionnée au constant réchauffement de la planète, est un réel problème pour l apiculture, la sécheresse de la terre empêchant la prolifération de flore mellifère. Cette flore spécifique donne en abondance des substances sucrées accessibles aux abeilles domestiques ; il est évident que sans elle les abeilles ne peuvent produire de miel. Avec une bonne pluviométrie on peut obtenir près de 10 fois plus de miel que lors d une année sans pluie. D autre part, le climat a un impact direct sur les abeilles elles-mêmes. Les intempéries de juin et juillet, en pleine période de miellé, dissuadent les abeilles de sortir de leurs ruches et les obligent à se nourrir de leur propre miel. La récolte s en trouve diminuée. Quant aux températures, bien plus rudes qu en plaines, elles exigent une préparation pour l hiver plus importante et coûteuse. Nourrir les abeilles en sucre pour tenir tout l hiver est un vrai luxe que beaucoup ne peuvent se permettre et ne se permettent pas, au risque de perdre ruche et essaim. En Kabylie, les difficiles conditions de transport et la médiocrité des routes de montagnes n encouragent pas les apiculteurs à effectuer la transhumance. L espace exploitable, quant à lui, est restreint. A Ain El Hammam, on trouve ruches, soit une ruche tous les quarante mètres, alors que le rayon de survole de l abeille est de trois kilomètres! Cette surpopulation, ajoutée à une flore insuffisamment développée, provoque des phénomènes de pillage et des pertes conséquentes d abeilles lorsque 187 Algérie

24 celles-ci entrent en guerre. Le résultat en est une production insignifiante ; d autant plus que sans transhumance, il n y a qu une miellé. Enfin, s ajoute le problème du coût de production. La ruche traditionnelle, installée dans un tronc de liège, est la moins chère, mais son rendement est presque nul. Tandis qu une ruche moderne coûte près d un tiers de la paie d un fonctionnaire algérien, ce qui n est pas sans en dissuader plus d un. Même si l acquisition de ruches en Kabylie est subventionnée par l état, les traitements (des produits chimiques) restent hors de prix. Malheureusement, la région est fortement touchée par le varroa, un acarien qui parasite les abeilles, et ces produits sont indispensables pour le combattre. Voilà pourquoi nombre de ruches sont laissées à l abandon, faute d avoir les moyens de les traiter. Les caprices de la météo, le faible rendement, et surtout le coût d entretien, incitent naturellement les apiculteurs à abandonner leurs ruches et à se tourner vers la vente d essaims plutôt que la production de miel. Un manque évident de technicité Dans les sommets du Djurdjura, l apiculture souffre également d un réel manque de formation. Le choix d une reine forte permet de gagner du temps sur la production. Une abeille novice, elle, a besoin de temps pour se former, mais plus le temps passe, plus elle vieillira et moins elle produira. Voilà par exemple pourquoi les apiculteurs de Kabylie devraient savoir faire un essaimage artificiel. Grâce ce genre de techniques modernes pour choisir la reine ou bien entretenir ses ruches, chacun d entre eux pourrait améliorer sa production, en quantité comme en qualité, et les réconcilier avec leurs ruches laissées à l abandon. Formation et information Les ingénieurs agronomes et professionnels de l APAM désirent transmettre ce qu ils ont appris. Une documentation informative et des CD explicatifs ont été élaborés. Sur le principe du porte-à-porte, l APAM propose aux apiculteurs de Ain El Hammam de faire un stage de formation à l essaimage artificiel, au traitement de sa ruche, à des techniques modernes qui permettront une augmentation de ses bénéfices conséquente. En plus des activités de formation, l APAM participe à des journées d information sur l agriculture, comme celles organisées à Ain El Hammam les 20, 21 et 22 mars 2006, en célébration de la journée de l Arbre. L association en profite pour sensibiliser les gens, leur expliquer les dangers de l abatage des forêts, et les inciter à planter chez eux des arbres mellifères et à créer leur petit coin de jardin. Elle recrute aussi une équipe de volontaires pour nettoyer la zone afin d agir contre la détérioration de l environnement. Enfin, elle organise des foires qui font la promotion de produits issus de l apiculture tels que le miel, la gelée royale ou la cire. Il ne s agit pas d écouler la production des apiculteurs de la région car la quantité produite reste très faible, mais bel et bien de faire connaître ces produits. L investissement de l État ne doit pas s arrêter à l acquisition Contre les contraintes climatiques, rien ne peut être fait, ni même par l Etat. En revanche, il peut agir dans un autre domaine. Tout d abord, il doit augmenter les

25 subventions pour que chaque apiculteur puisse prendre soin de ses ruches et les traiter chaque fois qu il sera nécessaire. En effet, le gouvernement ne doit pas se contenter d aider à l acquisition de ruches, il doit aussi veiller au suivi de la production et aider l apiculteur tout au long de sa démarche. Pour cela, il est important de créer des centres de formation en apiculture, avec du personnel enseignant compétent, et d offrir des cours gratuits sur les techniques modernes, mais aussi sur la prévention des maladies. Prévenir coûte moins cher que guérir. Enfin, la population elle-même doit veiller à l équilibre naturel du milieu en le préservant. Les arbres ne doivent plus être coupés ni les prairies polluées. Il ne manquera plus alors que l indulgence de la météo pour que la flore mellifère prolifère. «Plus qu un lieu, la montagne c est un sentiment, celui que l on ressent pour son foyer. Tout comme lui, on ne veut pas la quitter et on veut partager sa richesse et ses idéaux. Et pourtant, aujourd hui, c est un mur qui se dresse devant nous, et au rythme où vont les choses, si elles ne changent pas, nous n irons pas loin.» 189 Algérie Mots-clés Apiculture Coût de production Amélioration des techniques Traditionnelles Sécurité alimentaire Aide publique au développement Assistance technique

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27 Nepal, a small Himalayan state, has continuously seen its tumultuous history forged by its great neighbours: China in the North, a cautious India in the South, and the United Kingdom, which finally recognised Nepal s independence in The attempts to form a parliamentary democracy in the 1950s were unsuccessful, but marked the entrance of Nepal into the modern world stage. This country has a history filled with powerful families, hereditary monarchies, conspiracies, a current civil war, and an assassination of the royal family in /// The autochthonous Nepal organisation, Poverty Alleviation Fund, grants leadership to the communities and marginalised groups in the fight against their poverty A third of the national population in extreme poverty After five decades of a planned modern development and because of such a political scene, a third of Nepal population lives in extreme poverty. 47 % of the 27 millions inhabitants do not have a stable job, according to the Nepal s Central Bureau of Statistics. Millions lack proper nutrition, clothing, housing, health services, education, or even drinking water. A considerable amount of the population is excluded from the modern development due to issues of gender, ethnicity, or caste. Om Poudel states that in order to even think about a sustainable economic development in Nepal, it is necessary to involve the whole population, specially the marginalised population located in remote areas. Since its creation three years ago, the Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF) has made great efforts to realise this idea. The PAF Board is Chaired by Nepal s Prime Minister. This, insists Om Poudel, is a sign of the conviction and commitment which the Nepalese government has towards PAF s objectives. The PAF s benefit programmes are directed to the marginalised communities, poor women in remote zones, and the Dalits and Janajatis. The Dalits are the lowest group within the Hindu caste system; they have been historically relegated to the servile and menial tasks for the upper castes. They are also referred to as untouchables. Until recent changes to the Law (1963 Civil Code and the 1990 Nepal Constitution), they were deprived of education and excluded from the country s socioeconomic activities. The Janajatis are the native indigenous tribes. They have their own language, traditions, and culture; therefore they are not organised by the Hindu caste system. They are mostly located in the northern mountains, middle hills and the terai region in the South. It may seem that they live separated from the rest of the country due to their geographical and cultural isolation. Nevertheless, they sum up 35% of the national population according to the Nepalese Central Bureau of Statistics. The Poverty Alleviation Fund seeks the active participation of these groups and any independent organisation locally involved in projects that go along with the PAF s objectives as well. Every project launched by this fund comes down to allowing vulnerable and marginalised groups have access to more resources by promoting self-employment and the creation of economical activities that will relieve them from poverty and improve their quality of life. 191 Nepal

28 The poor are the best source of information The success in the battle against poverty lies in coming up with programmes where they are really needed, claims Om Poudel, Coordinating Portfolio Manager, Mugu for the Poverty Alliance Fund. To achieve this, there is only one rule of thumb you must follow: the people who live in poverty are the best source of information regarding their needs and resources. This is the principle that constitutes the Poverty Alleviation Fund. The inhabitants of the communities involved in any of the PAF s projects become the main players in the fight against poverty. It is they who observe, identify, and plan according to their capabilities, potential and priorities. The people from the selected and self-chosen communities can get technical assistance for social mobilisation, workshops to train them in the areas they request, and funds to launch employment-generating projects or to build infrastructures that will improve their quality of life. The Poverty Alleviation Fund s four blocks are: social mobilisation (empowerment), income generation and self employment, building rural community infrastructure, and capacity building. Based on these blocks, PAF has developed some innovating and clear strategies: - Tools and processes to work and join forces with the poor. - Approaching the communities upon a voluntary request: PAF only gets involved in projects when explicitly asked. - The funds and resources are handed over directly to the communities. - Helping poor communities organise themselves; identifying the communities, launching and monitoring each project. In order to organise functional work teams in the communities, a classifying method that takes place during the social mobilization was implemented. Particularly women, Dalits, and Janajatis are sensitized and motivated into organising. Villages and communities are classified as extremely poor, very poor, and non poor. Then communitarian organisation takes place between these groups, excluding the non poor, assuring that the poor are the ones who make the decisions regarding their community. It is mandatory that women make up at least 50% of the community s organisation, and 80% of the projects directly involve women, Dalits, and Janajatis. Hand over the funds directly to the organised community, not to intermediaries Once the community s problems have been listed - next to its interests, needs, and aspirations - information is sought so that the decision-making process is based on facts. Through its affiliated organisations, PAF seeks technical assistance, project designs, market and viability studies, and the required training workshops. Based on these studies, PAF hands over the funds directly to the communities so that they can develop themselves the selected projects, which have to be viable economically, socially and environmentally. Nepal is politically divided in 75 districts. The Central Bureau of Statistics has classified these districts into three groups using a series of socioeconomic indicators, leaving group C, made up of 25 districts, as the most unfavourable. PAF works mainly in these 25 districts, where accomplished projects include communitarian infrastructure, rural